1--Public opinion poll conducted by al-Wasat, published in London. 57.3% of Lebanese rejected participating in the elections, while 38.6% favored participation (no answer: 4%). The highest negative answer was among youth (61.1%).
2--Concerning elections and parliaments, see Iliya Harik, "Man Yahkum Lubnan," (Beirut: Dar al-Nahar lil-Nashr, 1972); Antoine Nasri Messarra, La Structure sociale du Parlement libanais, 1920-1976 (Beirut: Publications du Centre de Recherches, Universite libannaise, 1977); Abdo I. Baaklini, Legislative and Political Development: Lebanon: 1842-1972 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1976); Khayrallah Ghanem, Le Systeme electoral et la vie politique au Liban (Kaslik: Universite Saint-Espirit, 1983); Sami Abi Tayeh, Structure socio-juridique du phenomene electoral au Liban, 2 vol. (Beirut: Publications de l'Universite libannaise, 1982); Jalal Zuwiyya, The Parliamentary Election of Lebanon, 1968 (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1972); Salim Sleiman, Le Parliament libanais (Zalka: Le Livre Prefere, 1979); Michel Mirqas, al-Jumhuriyya qabla an Tanhar: Dirasa fi Tarikh al-Intikhabat al-Niyabiyya (Beirut: Dar al-Mu'allif, 1978).
On parliaments during the French Mandate, see Sonia Debs Daher, "Le composition sociale des Assemblees parlementaires libanaises 1920-1943," These pour le doctorat 3eme Cycle, Paris 1981.
3--The term "Second Republic" became popular, although it loses precision in constitutional terms. Concerning the mandate and the constitution, see Pierre Rondot, Les Institutions politiques du Liban: Des communautes traditionnelles a l'Etat moderne (Paris: Edition de l'Institut d'Etudes de l'Orient contemporain, 1947); Albert Hourani, Syrian and Lebanon: A Political Essay (London: Oxford University Press, 1946).
4--On the first stages of the civil war, see Kamal Salibi, Crossroads to Civil War: Lebanon 1958-1976 (Delmar: Caravan Books, 1976); Walid Khalidi, Conflict and Violence in Lebanon (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979); Marius Deeb, The Lebanese Civil War (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1980); Edward Haley and Lewis W. Snider, Lebanon in Crisis: Participants and Issues (Syracuse University Press, 1979).
5--On this period, see Karim Pakradouni, "La`nat al-Watan," Min Harb Lubnan ila Harb al-Khalij (Beirut: Abr al-Sharq lil-Manshurat, 1991), pp. 9-13; Sarkis Na`um, Michel Aoun, Hilm am Wahm? (Beirut: Nashr al-Mu'allif, 1992), pp. 53-62; Carol Dagher, Genral wa Rihan (Beirut: Manshurat Milaff al-Alam al-Arabi, 1992), pp. 75-121.
6--See Pakradouni, op. cit., pp. 15-23; Na`um, ibid.; Dagher, ibid.
7--Carol Dagher, op. cit., pp. 277-332.
8--On the National Covenant, see Joseph Maila, "Le Document d'entente nationale, un commentaire," Les Cahiers de l'Orient, no. 16-17 (1989), pp. 135-217, and "L'Accord de Taef, deux ans apres," Les Cahiers de l'Orient, no. 24 (1991), pp. 13-691; Paul Salem, "Commentary on the Taif Agreement," The Beirut Review, no. 1 (Spring 1991), pp. 119-172; Habib C. Malik, "Lebanon in the 1990s: Stability Without Freedom," Global Affairs (Winter 1992), pp. 79-109; Augustus Richard Norton, "Lebanon After Taif: Is the Civil War Over?" Middle East Journal (Summer 1991), pp. 457-473.
9--See Farid el Khazen, "The Uncrowned Druze Prince of the Left," Middle Eastern Studies (April 1988), pp. 178-205.
10--On the development in the Syrian presence in Lebanon since the mid-1970s, see Naomi Joy Weinberger, Syrian Intervention in Lebanon (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Reuven Avi-Ran, The Syrian Involvement in Lebanon Since 1975 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1991); Added Dawisha, Syria and the Lebanese Crisis (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980).
11--See Salim al-Hoss, Zaman al-Amal wal-Khayba, Tajarib al-Hukm ma bayna 1976-1980 (Beirut: Dar al-Ilm lil-Malayin, 1992); Karim Pakradouni, al-Salam al-Mafqud (Beirut: Milaff al-Alam al-Arabi, 1983).
12--On these developments, see Joseph Abu Khalil, Qissat al-Mawarina fi Lubnan: Sayra Dhatiyya (Beirut: Sharikat al-Matbu`at lil-Tawzi` wal-Nashr, 1990), pp. 265-389.
13--See Elie Adib Salem, Wathiqat al-Wifaq al-Watani bayn Bayrut wa Dimashq wa al-Ta'if (Beirut: al-Markaz al-Lubnani lil-Dirasat, 1992), p. 8.
14--On these developments, see Albert Mansour, al-Inqilab ala al-Ta'if (Beirut: Dar al-Jadid, 1992), pp115-139. Also, see Pakradouni, op. cit., p. 199-229; Na`um, op. cit., pp. 83-114; Dagher, op. cit., pp. 277-332.
15--On developments in U.S. policy toward Lebanon, see Farid al-Khazin, "al-Alaqat al-Lubnaniyya al-Amrikiyya fi Siyasat al-Tawazun al-Iqlimi," al-Difa` al-Watani al-Lubnani (October 1991), pp. 10-29; and "Min Bayrut ila `Ukar: al-Siyasa al-Amrikiyya bayn al-Waqi` wa Hajis al-Mu'amara," al-Difa` al-Watani al-Lubnani (August 1990), pp. 99-117. On American policy during the preparation of Taif, see Abdallah Bou Habib, al-Daw al-Asfar (Beirut: Sharikat al-Matbu`at lil-Tawzi` wal-Nashr, 1991), pp. 168-233; Na`um, op. cit., pp. 195-204. Also, see Barbara M. Gregory, "U.S. Relations with Lebanon: A Troubled Course," American-Arab Affairs (Winter 1990-91), pp. 62-93.
16--This is confirmed by observers of the parliamentary elections in official circles, and by those who wanted to find a way out on the issue of the elections' timing.
17--See al-Nahar, 8 August 1992.
18--Sources close to the elections provided this information.
19--On Minister Sami al-Khatib's positions, see al-Safir, 30 May 1992, and al-Nahar, 5, and 22 June 1992. On Minister Abdullah al-Amin's positions, see al-Nahar, 29 June 1992. On Minister Dalloul's positions, see al-Hayat, 29 July 1992.
20--At the beginning of July, Raymond Edde took the position of non-participation in the elections if they were held in 1992. See al-Nahar, 9 and 17 July 1992. General Aoun's anti-election stand was well-known; see al-Nahar, 13 May 1992. On the position of National Liberals Party leader Dory Chamoun, see al-Nahar, 5 July 1992.
21--In the Kisirwan constituency, it is interesting to note the Wa`ad Party candidate Sami al-Khuwayri's insistence to continue in the "battle," even after the first round had been cancelled.
22--On the opposition positions critical of the electoral law and the election process, see al-Nahar, 7, 13, 17, 18 and 21 July 1992. Also, see Ghassan Tueni's collected articles on the elections, Qabla an Yadhamuna al-Ya's (Beirut: Dar al-Nahar lil-Nashr, 1992), Fu'ad Butrus, "Kitab Maftuh ila Fakhamat Ra'is al-Jumhuriyya al-Ustadh Ilyas al-Hrawi," al-Nahar, 12 August 1992, and Albert Mkhayber, al-Hayat, 11 August 1992.
23--On Patriarch Sfayr's position, see al-Nahar, 13, 15 and 23 July 1992, and 24 and 27 August 1992. On the Maronite Bishopric's position, see L'Orient Le Jour, 6 August 1992. On other religious leaders' positions, see the statement by the Armenian Catholic Patriarch in L'Orient Le Jour, 7 August 1992; for the Higher Greek Catholic Council's position, see al-Nahar, 25 July 1992. On the position of the Druze Shaykh al-Aql, see al-Nahar, 27 July 1992. On the Ja`fari Mufti Qabalan's position against the elections under current conditions, see al-Safir, 23 June, and 4 and 18 July 1992. Also see Emille Khouri, al-Hayat, 15 July 1992, and Sarkis Na`um, al-Nahar, 25 August 1992.
24--The total number of displaced in these areas is 450,000, of whom 62% are from Mount Lebanon. See the Ministry of the Displaced's official report, "Qadiyat al-Tahjir, Waqi` wa Arqam," November 1992.
25--See Albert Mansour, op. cit., p. 58.
26--At the Lausanne Conference, the number of deputies was increased to 120: Elie Salem, op. cit., p. 3. We should note that the 1985 Tripartite Agreement stipulated raising the number of deputies to 198. On the number of deputies in the new electoral law, see Albert Mansour, op. cit., pp. 124-175. Also, see al-Nahar, 17 and 25 June 1992.
27--On the differences between the expanded and the small constituencies, and their political effects, see Messarra, op. cit. pp. 303-320.
28--In Beirut, al-Hoss announced his incomplete list on 24 August, or six days before election day. In the Northern Metn, the one list that was formed was announced on 27 August, ten days before the elections on 7 September. Hizballah was the first to announce the names of its candidates in the Biqa`, Beirut, and Ba`abda (everywhere but the south) on 5 August, or 18 days before the elections began. On the coalition lists, see Emille Khouri, al-Nahar, 15 July 1992.
29--On this subject, see Harik, op. cit., pp. 69-77.
30--The numbers obtained from the Ministry of the Interior's official results constitute a political an administrative interest. The source for total registered voters in the various constituencies is al-Safir, 19 June 1992.
31--Ibid.; al-Nahar, 30 April 1992, and al-Safir, 19 June 1992. The Shi`a deputy for Jubayl was elected by Shi`a voters, due to the Christian boycott.
32--Ministry of Interior numbers, and al-Safir, 19 June 1992.
33--There are five Armenian deputies in Beirut: three Orthodox, one Catholic, and one Protestant. There was an objection for the Protestant seat going to an Armenian, since the seat was designated specifically for the Protestant sect, and the Armenians are represented by Catholics and Orthodox.
34--On the many proposals by prominent deputies to postpone the elections, see al-Nahar, al-Safir, and al-Hayat, 7 August 1992; al-Nahar, 14 August 1992; al-Safir, 19 August 1992.
35--See Albert Mansour, op. cit., pp. 187-229; and Sarkis Na`um, al-Nahar, 25-29 August 1992.
36--The Lebanese lira-U.S. dollar exchange rate reached its highest level at 2,775 lira to the dollar during August 1992, the eve of the elections. On the deteriorating economic conditions in 1992, see Samir Maqdisi, "Fi Khalfiyyat Tawajuhhat al-Siyasa al-Iqtisadiyya fi Lubnan," al-Zamil (February 1992), pp. 6-11.
37--The deputies were: Foreign Minister Faris Buwayz, and Deputies Nassib Lahoud, Pierre Helou, Fuad al-Sa`ad and Auguste Bakhos. See al-Nahar, 29 August 1992.
38--See al-Safir, 20 August 1992, and al-Nahar, 1 August 1992.
39--See Adib Na`meh, al-Nahar, 3 February 1993. According to some newspapers, the name of Yusif Beyk Karam (died 1889) appeared on the Zgharta electoral list. al-Nahar, 14 August 1992; L'Orient-Le Jour, 14 August 1992.
40--On the opposition's criticisms of the 1947 round, see Jarimat 25 Ayyar: Kayfa Jarat al-Intikhibat al-Niyabiyya fi Lubnan? (Hizb al-Kutla al-Wataniyya, 1947).
41--See Speaker al-Husayni's statements on the Ba`albak-Hermel constituency's electoral violations in al-Nahar and al-Safir, 24 and 25 August 1992. Also see Albert Mansour, op. cit., pp. 181-186.
42--See the official report for Ba'albak-Hermel, in al-Nahar, 2 September 1992. This was the only official report on the elections published in the press. There were twelve opened ballot boxes, 59 without envelopes, or with envelopes lacking the red wax seal, 52 lacking reports of results, 23 lacking tabulation lists, or signed lists, etc. A television photographer shot footage of an empty ballot box in a Biqa` town! Also, see Albert Mansour, op. cit., pp. 181-186.
43--See the detailed report on voting-day electoral violations, submitted by Kamil al-As`ad's list, al-Nahar, 12 September 1992.
44--On the electoral dispute between Franjiyyeh and Karami in the north, see al-Anwar, 5 and 9 August 1992; al-Nahar 10 August 1992; L'Orient-Le Jour, 10 August 1992.
45--On the progress in voter turnout in Lebanese parliamentary elections, see Iliya Harik, "Voting Behaviour, Lebanon," in Landau, Ozbudun, and Tachau (eds.) Electoral Politics in the Middle East (London: Croon Helm, 1980), pp. 145-171; and Baaklini, op. cit., pp. 154-157.
46--Percentages for official results for winning and losing candidates in all constituencies are from Ministry of the Interior reports, and numbers in various press sources.
47--On parliamentary elites, see Iliya I. Harik, "Political Elite of Lebanon," in George Lenczowski (ed.) Political Elites in the Middle East (Washington: American Enterprise Institute, 1975), pp. 201-220; Khalaf op. cit., pp. 243-272; Baaklini, op. cit., pp. 141-197; Messarra, op. cit., pp. 141-241. The term "political elite" is common in political science, and has no specifying characteristics, in contrast to the Arabic translation.
48--Abd al-Rahman al-Bizri (the son of Sidon's former deputy, Nazih al-Bizri) and Nasir al-Khalil (the son of Tyre's former deputy, Kazim al-Khalil). The twelve deputies are: Ilie Skaff, Sulayman Franjiyyeh, Samir Aoun, Talal Arslan, Omar Karami, Walid Junblat, Ali Osseiran, Faris Buwayz, Nayla Mu`awad, Marwan Abu-Fadel, Mansour al-Bone, and Mustafa Sa`ad (whose father was not a deputy in the 1972 parliament).
49--This is particularly the case in the constituencies of Jubayl, Northern Metn, and Beirut, and especially for some of the deputies.
50--Messarra, op. cit., pp. 224, 231, and 241.
51--Ibid., p. 166.
52--Khalaf, op. cit., p. 248.
53--Michael C. Hudson, The Precarious Republic: Political Modernization in Lebanon (New York: Random House, 1968).
54--Messarra, op. cit., pp. 77-81.
55--On previous electoral rounds, see al-Nahar, "Khamsin Sinna wa Sinna," December 1971-January 1972. Also, see "al-Hayat al-Barlamaniyya fi Lubnan," (3 parts) al-Nahar 1968; Jean Ma`louf and Joseph Abi Farhat, al-Mawsu`a al-Intikhabiyya al-Musawwara, (Beirut: Nashr al-Mu'allifin, 1972); Camille Chehab, 1960: Les elections legislatives (Beirut: 1960); Gideon Tadmor, "The Lebanese Elections," Middle Eastern Affairs (June-July 1951), pp. 247-250; G.E. Kirk, "Elections in the Lebanese Republic," The World Today (June 1957), pp. 260-265; Malcolm H. Kerr, "The 1960 Lebanese Parliamentary Elections," Middle Eastern Affairs (October 1960), pp. 266-275; Nicolas A. Ziadeh, "The Lebanese Elections, 1960," The Middle East Journal (Autumn 1960), pp. 367-381; Jacob M. Landau, "Elections in Lebanon," The Western Political Review (March 1961), pp. 120-147; Michael Suleiman, "Elections in a Confessional Democracy," The Journal of Politics (February 1967), pp. 109-128.
56--See Ralph E. Crow, "Electoral Issues: Lebanon," in Landau et. al., op. cit., pp. 39-68.
57--Francis Fukuyama, "The End of History," The National Interest (Summer 1989), pp. 3-18.
58--On Hizballah, see Assaf Kfoury, "Hezballah: La nebuleuse," Arabies, pp. 20-31.
59--"Fadlallah An al-Intikhibat wa Mustaqbal al-Muqawama," (interview) Shu'un al-Sharq al-Awsat (December 1992), pp. 40; also, see Sarkis Na`um, al-Nahar, 16 September 1992.
60--On political parties in Lebanon, see Michael W. Suleiman, Political Parties in Lebanon: The Challenge of a Fragmented Political Culture (New York: Cornell University Press, 1967). On political parties and electoral policy, see Messarra, op. cit. pp. 71-95; Baaklini, op. cit., pp. 178-197; Ghanem, op. cit., pp. 113-140; Iliya Harik, "al-Ahzab wa al-Tamthil al-Dimuqrati," in Riyad al-Samad and Samir Sabbagh, al-Amaliyya al-Intikhabiyya wa al-Dimuqratiyya fi Lubnan, (Beirut: al-Mu'assasa al-Jami`iyya lil-Dirasat wa al-Tawzi`, 1987), pp. 117-130.
61--Messarra, op. cit., pp. 45-57.
62--See former minister Shawqi Fakhouri's statement on the role of money in the Zahle constituency's elections, al-Nahar, 25 August 1992. Also, see the al-As`ad list's statement in al-Nahar, 25 August 1992.
63--On local policy during the mandate, see Iskandar al-Riyashi, Qabla wa Ba`d, (Beirut: Matba`a al-Irfan, 1953).
64--Fouad Ajami, The Vanished Imam: Mussa al-Sadr and the Shi`a of Lebanon (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985); Augustus Richard Norton, Amal and the Shi`a: Struggle for the Soul of Lebanon (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987).
65--Michael Johnson, Class and Client in Beirut: The Sunni Muslim Community and the Lebanese State, 1940-1985 (London: Ithaca Press, 1986).
66--Michael Hudson, "The Electoral Process and Political Development in Lebanon," The Middle East Journal (Spring 1966), p. 174.
67--Ralph E. Crow, "Parliament in the Lebanese Political System," in Allen Kornberg and Lioys D. Muslof (eds.), Legislatures in Developmental Perspective (Durham: Duke University Press, 1970), pp. 273-302; Abdo I. Baaklini, "Legislative Reforms in Lebanon," in Abdo I. Baaklini and James J. Heaphey, Comparative Legislative Reforms and Innovations (Albany: State University of New York, 1977).
68--On electoral reform projects, see Antoine Messarra, "Les propositions de reforme de la Loi electorale, 1963-1968. Essai de synthese," Revue Libanaise des Sciences Politiques (January 1968-1970), pp. 1-34. Also see Iliya Harik, "al-Nizam al-Akthari wa al-Nizam al-Nisbi, Ayyahuma Afdal lil-Lubnan?" al-Nahar, 11-12 May 1972.
69--See Ghassan Tueni, al-Nahar, 27 August 1992.
70--See Deputy Najah Wakim's statements on this issue, in The Lebanon Report (July 1992), p. 3.
71--See Jihad al-Zayn, al-Safir, 15 August 1992.
72--On these developments, see Edmond Rabbath, La Formation historique du Liban politique et constitutionnel (Beirut: Publications de l'Universite libanaise, 1973), pp. 329-512; Farid el Khazen, The Communal Pact of National Identities (Oxford: Center for Lebanse Studies, 1991).
73--See Waddah Sharara, "al-Intisarat fi Lubnan Mustamirra Nahwa al-Tathir al-Siyasi," al-Hayat, 14 September 1992; Khayrallah Khayrallah, al-Hayat, 17 September 1992; Bishara Shirbil and Ali al-Ruz, al-Hayat, 5, 6, 7 August 1992. Also see George Nasif, "al-Intikhabat al-Lubnaniyya: al-Ab`ad al-Dakhiliyya wal-Kharijiyya," Shu'un al-Sharq al-Awsat (December 1992), pp. 23-30.
74--Farid el Khazen, "Lebanon's Communal Elite-Mass Politics: The Institutionalization of Disintegration," The Beirut Review (Spring 1992), pp. 53-82.
75--Guy Hermet, "State-Controlled Elections: A Framework," in Hermet, Rose, and Rouquie (eds.), Elections Without Choice (London: The Macmillan Press, 1978), pp. 1-18; Richard Rose, "Is Choice Enough? Elections and Political Authority," Ibid., pp. 96-212.
76--Ibid., p. 13.
77--Ibid.
78--Ibid.
79--Ibid.
80--Ibid.