As part of its advocacy efforts towards building a people-centered and sustainable recovery from the Beirut port explosion and its endeavors to promote inclusive and equitable social justice, as well as foster trust between individuals, entities, and the Lebanese government, the Lebanese Center for Policy Studies (LCPS) partnered with Transparency International (TI) and its local chapter, Transparency International Lebanon – No Corruption, to issue “The Reform Monitor.” The topics covered by the monitor are linked to the areas of reform, recovery, and reconstruction (3RF). The monitor falls within the Building Integrity and National Accountability in Lebanon (BINA’) project, which is funded by the European Union. The views expressed in the monitor do not necessarily reflect those of the donor.

WHAT’S THE ISSUE AT HAND?

Lebanon, a founding member of the United Nations, has integrated the Universal Declaration of Human Rights into its Constitution, reaffirming its commitment to fundamental freedoms, including freedom of expression. Article 13 guarantees this right within legal limits, and Lebanon’s ratification of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1972 further emphasizes its dedication.

Despite these commitments, legal restrictions often undermine free speech. The penal code criminalizes defamation of public officials, imposing fines and prison sentences. More severe penalties include up to two years of imprisonment for insulting the head of state, religious figures, or sacred traditions (HRW, 2020). Lebanon’s military code of justice further complicates matters, criminalizing insults directed at the army and granting military courts jurisdiction over civilians.

Security agencies have used intimidation tactics, compelling individuals to pledge not to post critical content. Human rights organizations report widespread coercion, contributing to Lebanon’s declining press freedom (HRW, 2020). The country's ranking in the World Press Freedom Index fell from 102nd in 2020 to 140th in 2024 (SEEDS, 2020).

The ongoing political and economic crisis has further increased media restrictions. Between October 2023 and late 2024, at least nine journalists were killed by Israeli airstrikes in South Lebanon, many in clearly marked press gear and far from military activity—raising serious concerns of deliberate targeting and potential war crimes. High-profile cases, including the deaths of Issam Abdallah, Farah Omar, Rabih al-Maamari, and others, were confirmed by UNIFIL and investigated by Amnesty International.

Journalists also faced death threats, physical assaults, and indirect attacks on civilian areas and media offices, with violations continuing even after the November 2024 ceasefire. In parallel, political factions and Lebanese authorities imposed growing restrictions, including access denial, intimidation, arbitrary arrests, and digital harassment, while bureaucratic gatekeeping further obstructed coverage. Collectively, these actions reflect a systematic effort to silence critical reporting and suppress media freedom during and after the war. (IFJ, 2024)

Freedoms under attack

Over the past decade, Lebanon has experienced a growing crackdown on freedom of expression, with activists, journalists, and citizens facing increased interrogations, detentions, and censorship. Outdated defamation laws, more aligned with repressive regimes than democratic standards, have failed to adapt to global free speech protections, particularly in the digital age.

Crackdowns intensified after the Arab Spring, as political and religious figures, backed by the Public Prosecution Office, selectively enforced defamation laws to silence critics. The Cybercrimes Bureau, under the Internal Security Forces, investigates online speech-related offenses, frequently summoning activists for interrogation ((Touma and Zaghbour, 2020). Many detainees report intimidation, prolonged questioning, and pressure to delete content or pledge not to post similar remarks, reinforcing a culture of suppression.

Since 2015, Lebanon’s suppression of free speech has escalated, particularly following the 2019 protests (SEEDS, 2020). Journalists, activists, and ordinary citizens criticizing political corruption have faced mounting investigations, arrests, and censorship (Majzoub, 2021). The protests shattered long-standing taboos, allowing demonstrators to speak out against entrenched political elites, but also triggered an aggressive backlash. One example is social media comedian Toufic Braidi, whose passport was confiscated in December 2021 over charges of insulting the presidency. Similarly, journalist Nidal Ayoub faced interrogation by the ISF Cybercrime Bureau after displaying a protest poster, following an earlier smear campaign labeling her a foreign agent (Alef, 2024).

Amnesty International reported that in 2020 alone, at least 75 individuals were detained for criticizing authorities online. Protesters encountered tear gas, excessive force, and detentions without charges, while journalists and activists faced intimidation, cyberbullying, and arbitrary arrests (Maharat, 2019). That same year, Lebanon’s top prosecutor ordered investigations into social media posts deemed offensive to the president, sparking a wave of arrests. This crackdown echoed the 2014 arrest of Jean Assy, sentenced to two months in prison for tweets criticizing President Michel Suleiman (Al-Arabiya News, 2014). Assy’s case set a precedent for using legal mechanisms to suppress online criticism.

Beyond political oppression, Lebanon has also seen heightened restrictions on artistic and cultural expression. In 2018, censorship of the musical group Mashrou’ Leila underscored growing intolerance toward speech deemed offensive to religious figures. The band’s planned performance at Byblos International Festival was canceled following accusations of blasphemy (SEEDS, 2020).These incidents illustrate how sectarian and political influences extend beyond traditional dissent into creative spaces, reinforcing self-censorship among artists and activists.

In response to these mounting restrictions, fourteen Lebanese and international organizations formed the Coalition to Defend Freedom of Expression in Lebanon in July 2020 (HRW, 2020). The coalition has documented attacks on free speech, issuing regular updates on violations. In April 2023, it condemned the rising number of summonses for investigation, warning that these measures further suppress free expression.

Among the most concerning developments was the Beirut Bar Association’s amendment to the Lawyers’ Code of Ethics, requiring prior approval for media-related activities. This restriction limits lawyers from publicly discussing legal matters, including in legal seminars, interviews, and discussions on social media, reducing transparency and shielding judicial and political institutions from scrutiny.

Media laws and regulations

Lebanon's legal framework for media and freedom of expression remains outdated and fragmented, relying on old laws that fail to reflect global developments in free speech protections. The Penal Code, newly-introduced cybercrime regulations, and defamation statutes create inconsistencies, allowing authorities to selectively apply restrictions based on political interests rather than clear legal standards (Freedom House, 2023).

The 1962 Press Law restricts print media ownership to Lebanese citizens and imposes strict licensing requirements, while the 1994 Audiovisual Media Law created a tiered licensing system that limited independent broadcasting. Both were designed for traditional print and broadcast media, leaving digital platforms and online journalism largely unregulated or subject to vague interpretations. Lebanon’s Cybercrime and Intellectual Property Bureau, established in 2006 to monitor internet-related offenses, has been accused of suppressing dissent by targeting activists for satirical social media posts. Between 2015 and 2020, over 4,000 journalists, bloggers, and social media users were summoned for questioning (Majzoub, 2021).

Lebanon’s media law proposal, introduced in 2010 by the Maharat Foundation and MP Ghassan Moukhaiber, has undergone multiple revisions, becoming increasingly restrictive. Amendments between 2010 and 2023 heightened penalties for insults and defamation while maintaining prison terms for religious speech offenses (Maharat, 2020). This prompted strong opposition from human rights organizations, who criticized the lack of transparency and their exclusion from deliberations. Rights groups also warned that the stricter measures could further suppress dissent, enabling authorities to harass journalists, activists, and critics. By reinforcing punitive speech laws, the draft deepens Lebanon’s restrictive environment for free expression, limiting public debate and scrutiny of government actions (Amnesty, 2023).

In 2023, then-Minister of Information Ziad Makary, in collaboration with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), submitted a new draft media law to reform Lebanon’s legal framework. A parliamentary sub-committee was formed to review the proposal, introducing key reforms, including the elimination of imprisonment for expression-related disputes, the establishment of an independent regulatory body, and the protection of journalists’ sources.

Discussions were halted due to the military conflict with Israel, but resumed in January 2025. Since then, the draft law review has been ongoing and is now in its final drafting stages. Once completed, it will proceed to the Administration and Justice Committee for discussions and approval before advancing to the Parliament’s general assembly (Farouk Moghrabi, 2025).

WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE?

To strengthen freedom of speech in Lebanon, legal reforms must repeal laws criminalizing criticism of authorities, amend the outdated Publications Law, and update legislation to protect digital rights and online expression (HRW, 2018). Clear legal definitions should distinguish free speech from hate speech, which incites hatred, discrimination, and violence (UN, 2020).

Lebanon lacks a comprehensive framework addressing hate speech, allowing sectarian and political rhetoric to escalate, particularly during crises. Politicians and media figures have used inflammatory language to deepen divisions, while refugees, especially Syrians, have been targeted by hostile narratives blaming them for economic and security issues (Media Diversity, 2021). Existing laws are often weaponized against critics rather than effectively curbing hate speech.

To counter suppression, independent oversight bodies must be established to monitor violations and protect journalists and activists from harassment and excessive force. This will ensure that free expression is safeguarded while harmful speech is regulated in line with human rights standards.

WHY IS THIS IMPORTANT?

Freedom of expression is essential in Lebanon as it supports democratic values, allowing citizens to voice opinions, criticize the government, and advocate for change. It plays a key role in accountability, by allowing journalists, activists, and everyday citizens to expose corruption, challenge abuses of authority, and demand transparency from public institutions.

Moreover, freedom of expression has been a driving force behind major political shifts—most notably during the 2019 uprising, when mass mobilization across sectarian lines was fueled by public discourse, independent media, and viral social commentary. In that moment, the ability to speak freely helped transform frustration into collective action, reshaping political narratives, and putting long-standing issues back on the table.

Media institutions amplify public voices, both locally and internationally, creating pressure for reforms. Investigative journalism exposes corruption, while social media enables activists to mobilize, share information, and challenge narratives controlled by political elites. Independent organizations such as the Maharat Foundation, SKeyes Center for Media and Cultural Freedom, and the Social Media Exchange (SMEX) monitor press freedoms, advocate for free speech, and support journalists under threat. Alternative media platforms also contribute by diversifying Lebanon’s media landscape, fostering independent discourse.

These organizations not only protect free expression but also stimulate public debate on governance, accountability, and reform. A pluralistic and independent media sector ensures that diverse perspectives reach the public, reinforcing Lebanon’s reputation for openness in the region. Ultimately, freedom of expression is more than an individual right—it is a foundation of Lebanon’s social and political identity, shaping public discourse and enabling citizens to engage in the ongoing struggle for justice and reform.

References

Alexi Touma and Mira Zaghbour, To speak or not to speak: Tackling recent violations of freedom of expression in Lebanon, Issam Fares Institute for Public Policy and International Affairs, American University of Beirut, Policy Brief #1, January 2020, https://www.aub.edu.lb/ifi/Documents/publications/policy_briefs/2019-2020/20200117_freedom_of_expression.pdf

Nadine Moubarak, Human Rights and Freedom of Expression in Lebanon: Identifying Allies and Opponents | | Reports | News | Skeyes Media | Center for Media and Cultural Freedom, SKeyes Special, Tuesday, 25 April 2023

Aya Majzoub, Freedom of speech in Lebanon is under threat | Middle East Institute (mei.edu), 3 May 2021

Human Rights Watch, Lebanon: New Coalition to Defend Free Speech | Human Rights Watch (hrw.org), 13 July 2020

Alef Act for Human Rights, Situation Report 2019 – 2023, August 2024, https://alefliban.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Situation-Report-2019-2023-FINAL.pdf

SEEDS Legal Initiatives, Universal Periodic Report – Report on Restricting Freedom of Expression in Lebanon, 09 July 2020, https://uprdoc.ohchr.org/uprweb/downloadfile.aspx?filename=8395&file=EnglishTranslation

Al-Arabiya News, Lebanon man sentenced for insulting president on Twitter, 12 February 2014, https://english.alarabiya.net/media/digital/2014/02/12/Lebanon-man-sentenced-for-insulting-president-on-Twitter

Maharat Foundation, Monitoring Freedom of Expression and Media During the Revolution 17 October – 31 December 2019, https://maharatfoundation.org/media/1787/foe-report-final-english.pdf

Maharat Foundation, Recalling the Media Law Proposal, March 2020, https://maharatfoundation.org/en/recallingmedialawproposal

Amnesty International, “Lebanon: Proposed media law poses grave threat to freedom of expression,” 28 November 2023, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/11/lebanon-proposed-media-law-poses-grave-threat-to-freedom-of-expression

United Nations, Hate Speech, https://www.un.org/en/hate-speech/understanding-hate-speech/hate-speech-versus-freedom-of-speech

Amnesty International, Lebanon: Authorities must respect freedoms of the press and legal profession and fundamentally amend defamation laws, 5 April 2023,

https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/04/lebanon-authorities-must-respect-freedoms-of-the-press-and-legal-profession-and-fundamentally-amend-defamation-laws

Human Rights Watch, Lebanon: Pattern of Prosecutions for Free Speech, 31 January 2024, https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/01/31/lebanon-pattern-prosecutions-free-speech

LBC Group TV, Lebanon ranks 140th in World Press Freedom Index amid economic and political crisis, 3 May 2024, https://www.lbcgroup.tv/news/lebanon-news/770054/lebanon-ranks-140th-in-world-press-freedom-index-amid-economic-and-pol/en

Media Landscapes, Lebanon Country profile, Lebanon - Media Landscapes

Media Diversity Institute, Hate Speech in Lebanon: Incendiary Rhetoric, Flammable Society, 10 May 2021, Hate Speech in Lebanon: Incendiary Rhetoric, Flammable Society - Media Diversity Institute

Coalition to Defend Freedom of Expression: Authorities must respect freedoms of the press and legal profession and fundamentally amend defamation laws | Maharat Foundation, 2023

International Federation of Journalists, Lebanon: Nine journalists and media workers killed since the war started in Gaza, 25 October 2024, https://www.ifj.org/media-centre/news/detail/article/lebanon-nine-journalists-and-media-workers-killed-since-the-war-started-in-gaza

Farouk Moghrabi, lawyer, human rights activist, representative of the Alternative Press Syndicate in the sub-committee, interview with the author, August 2024 and May 2025.

Lebanon: Freedom in the World 2023 Country Report | Freedom House